1st Romano-Persian war

This article turned much larger than I've expected.It is mainly given by intro about how the Romano-Persian wars came to be and what was happening before the 1st of them.I expect narrations about consequent wars much shorter.So-because I seriously doubt somebody will read it all just follow the headlines to skip directly to what interests you the most .-)

WHO WERE THE "PARTHIANS"

The Parthian Empire also known as the Arsacid Empire(which is far more correct name) was one of the 3 great Iranic Empires of the ancientIran/Persia: (Achaemenid,Arsacid and Sassanid dynasties).

The Romans mostly referred Arsacid state simply as "Parthia" because it was from the old Persian province of Parthia Arsacids rised to prominence.They get their name after 1st province of former Achaemenid Empire they conquered."Parthians" and their realm were also sometimes refered simply as the Persians and Persia by the Romans.What eventually became Parthian Empire was established by Arsaces I after which ruling dynasty got its name.Arsaces was a chieftain of nomadic Parni people of Scythia who belonged to a wilder group of larger family of north-eastern Iranian tribes with their original homelands being on the Euro-Asian steppes of cenrtal Asia.They were wilder relatives of "more civilized" Persians(itself a rather generalizing term)of the south who lived on Iranian plateau and talked with Iranian languages(Parni people are meant with this.On territory of Arsacid Empire more,mostly Iranic,languages were in use of course).Arsacids also claimed to be a relatives of Achaemenid dynasty who ruled Persia before conquest of Alexander and take it as a model to follow while at the same time preserved their nomadic spirit and significant influence of the Greek culture.


PROLOG AND THE WORLD BEFORE ROMANO-PERSIAN WARS:

Inevitable power struggle had its roots mainly in dissolution of the former Empire of Alexander-especially in decline of once mighty Seleucid Empire.

During 3rd century Parni under Arsacids moved themselves to eastern banks of the Caspian sea and consequiently sized opportunity to attack old Persian province of Parthia at that time ruled by the Seleucid governor who however just recently rebelled against Seleucid court and attempted to establish his own independent kingdom in Parthia.Seleucids were the Greek dynasty established by one of the Alaxander the Great generals named Seleukos(to history known as Seleukos Nikator).Arsaces become master over Parthia around 250 BC/BCE(247/8 is a date which is mostly used to mark establishment of the Parthian Empire) and soon afterwards Arsacid also gained control over Hyrcania another northern region on the periphery of Seleucid Empire.

At first Arcasids were forced to accept suzerainty of the Seleucid throne over them(Antiochus III the Great even completely repulsed them from Parthia and Hyrcania for a brief time but in the end problems elsewhere forced Seleucids to make peace with them and Parthian chieftains were granted title of King in confirmation of their rule over Parthia in exchange for their acceptance of vassal status to the Seleucid court)but as the structure of the Seleucid state was getting still more and more fragile,being crippled on its huge,culturally and ethnically very diverse territory by many revolts,separatist attempts,wars with other hellenistic and non-hellenistic powers and dynastic civil wars,the Parthians again turned into troublemakers.They took thier opportunity,escaped from the bounds of Seleucid vassalship and started a century of conquest on the expanse of Seleucids,subduing most of their remaining territory on Iranian plateau.And they get a mighty helper in this...

...At the same time another superpower was rising at the opposite end of the world which will eventually turn into Roman Empire.

Roman republic dealt a severe blow to Seleucid realm especially at the battle of Magnesia in 190 BC/BCE which considerably crippled Seleucid military potential,damaged its prestige and forced them to evacuate from europe and Asia Minor forever.Astronomic war reparations Rome dictated were so huge that it took more Seleucid Kings to pay it all up and they even conducted military campaigns to the east in order to gain finances to pay these reparations.finished Punic wars were now getting Roman interests aimed more and more on the east while Seleucids lost control over Iran to the Parthians and find themselves in a cycle of neverending revolts,civil wars and failed wars.In the end Seleucid realm shrinked on Syria only and was only allowed to exist for its last decades just because neighboring powers find it useful to use it as a buffer state.Finally Tigranes the great decided to exploit weakness of the Seleucid remnant to enlarge his Armenian Empire and effectively ended existence of Seleucid state although Romans under Pompey forced Tigranes to cede syria and Roman general for the last time attempted for a brief time to renew Seleucid buffer state as Roman vassal,but notorious struggles among Seleucid family members made him change opinion-as Rome was not interested in having so problematic and unstable vassal,Pompey deposed the last powerless Seleucid King(Philip II "Philoromaeus/Friend of the Romans") and turned Syria into a Roman province in 64(3) BC/BCE.This however exposed the Romans to the Parthian Empire setting  the stage for a brand new conflict.

FIRST CONTACT :

Romans get into fist recorded contact with the Parthians between 96- 92BC/BCE when famous Sulla likely become the first Roman magistrate to ever meet a Parthian ambassador on the Euphrates.Ambassador Orobazus,was send by his King Mithridates II of Parthia to open official mutual contacts with Rome,to find out what are the Roman intentions in the region and mainly to conclude an agreement over borders and spheres of influence in the east.The two agreed that the river Euphrates would serve as the border between Parthia and Rome.Parthian King also tried to form an alliance with Rome but he did did not succeed in this.

So called Mithridatic Wars(88-63 BC/BCE) against Kingdom of Pontus in the following years became accelerator of further contacts who were becoming still more and more tense mainly because of the Roman atitudes.Another famous Roman general Lucullus negotiated with Arsacid King Phraates III to dissuade him from intervening in Roman Mithridatic campaigns as Roman enemies also dispatched envoys to get help against Romans from the Parthians.Lucullus was probably the 1st Roman to seriously consider attacking the Parthians.Lucullus was succeeded in command by Pompey the Great who finished series of wars with Pontic King Mithridates and his Armenian ally Tigranes. In 65 BC/BCE Pompey reached alliance agreement with Phraates III who consequently attacked Armenian Kingdom which allowed the Romans to focus on the final destruction of the Pontic Kingdom and turning most of Anatolia a Roman territory.

And then it happened for the 1st time what will dominate Romano-Persian conflicts for centuries since then-first disputes over territory and influence in Armenia.Both Rome and Parthia were trying to instal its own puppet candidate on the Armenian throne(Romans further made Parthians upset by giving some minor border territories to Armenians despite Arcasids considered them as theirs and also by the fact that Pompey refused to address Phraates with the title of "King of Kings" of the old  Achaemenid Persian Empire).At this very first dispute Romans get upper hand and made Armenia their vassal state with a King installed by them.Parthians however did not accept the situation as it was and through force ripped of some territory of now Roman "protected" Armenia back to them.Direct military confrontation betwen Rome and Parthia was nevertheless postponed as both states had more immediate issues elsewhere.In fact until ambitions of one man started 1st Romano-Persian war mutual contacts remained quite peaceful and especially Parthia had no interrest in open conflict with Rome.Pompey confirmed Euphrates river as a boundary between Rome and Parthia and acknowledged Mesopotamia as Parthian territory-except Corduene and the Kingdom of Osroene,wich became a Roman dependencies.


CRASSUS ARRIVAL TO SYRIA:

But the line between peace and war was finally crossed from the Roman side thanks to ambitions of Marcus Licinius Crassus a multi-millionaire,and possibly the richest man in Rome.Crassus of that time was a part of three men political alliance to secretly rule the Roman state together with Pompey and Caesar but although his colleagues were already both respected as military commanders and for their conquest Crassus was part of the 1st Triumvirate mainly because of his financial resources only although he was not completely without military experience and it was also Crassus who defeated up to that moment greatest ever slave revolt led by Spartacus but at his own time Roman public considered unjustly Pompey(who in reality easily finished only scant remains of the rebels)the one who defeated Spartacus revolt.But even if his  contemporaries correctly gave credit for that to Crassus his war against slaves would not be considered by the Romans a worthy feat enough and his victories too distand and old.He wanted to gain reputation of sucessful military commander by attacking something more prestigious-by attacking and conquering some foreign state and he eventually found that victim in Arcasid Empire at the east,a region so very open to Roman expansion in recent decades.

And situation seemed especially timely for such an agressive plans.In 58/7 King Phraates III was deposed and murdered by his sons Mithridates and Orodes while soon afterwards these good brothers started to fight also each other for the Arsacid realm.Roman army for the 1st time crossed over the Parthian borders after one of contending brothers Mithridates escaped to Roman Syria and persuaded Roman governor Aulus Gabinius to help him with defeating Orodes(Romans were already in full battle readines because the very same Mithridates shortly before attacked Roman Vassal of Armenia before he was forced to turn against his brother).Although Romans embarked on the campaign Gabinius was soon commanded back from Mesopotamia without any fighting  taking place when he was entrusted to lead a similar intervention in Ptolemaid civil war in Egypt from which side Romans get more lucrative offer for help.Nevertheless Mithridates decided to continue in Arcasid civil war on his own fist(possibly still having at least some form of Roman support) and for a brief time indeed restored hismself as the King of Kings but his brother Orodes was not yet defeated.

And it was in this circumstances Crassus finally entered the eastern stage being granted his long desired post of opportunity,post of Syrian governor with the help of his co-triumvirs.It was a kind of open secret that Crassus will most likely use his post in Syria to attack Parthia yet there was a considerable opposition to such a war among the Romans.Cicero for example was among those who strongly protested such plans calling it "a war with no justification”.This resistance was however given not so much by any justice/unjustice war concerns among most Roman senators but rather by politicaly motivated opposition to Crassus( mainly from members of Optimates faction)and also by the desire to prevent Rome from entering unnecessary war which would damaged up to that time stabilized Roman east and would consequently forced the Roman republic to concentrate far more of its military in the east to defend it from the Parthians.Crassus was seen an aggressor and treaty-breaker(Plutarch claims that one of the tribunes of the people even formally cursed Crassus!)but he ignored this disgreement and entered Syria where he arrived at the beginning of 54 BC/BCE.This was typical helplessness of the late Roman republic-senators were protesting and debating but did nothing concrete to really stop Crassus from realizing his warlike intentions.


 Both Pompey and especially Caesar were encouraging Crassus to his military enterprise.Caesar even detached 1000 light Gallic cavalrymen from his own Gallic army to attend the campaign.They were led by Publius Crassus,Son of Marcus Crassus,who become experienced commander under Caesar in Gaul.


Crassus quickly become very infamous and unpopular at the Roman east and its vassal states by uncompromised vacuuming of funds from there so much that he notably impoverished local people who viewed him basically a thief(Acting more like a businessman than a general says Plutach).During this he also made especially angry the Jews by plundering the Temple in Jerusalem of its treasury(that Pompey had left untouched).Although such behavior on the part of Crassus is often tendentially interpreted,already since antiquity,like a sign of Crassus insatiable desire for wealth which ultimately brought about even his own death it is more likely that he simply sought to accumulate as much financial reserves for his grand campaign as possible as it was clear such war is not possible without extraordinary expenses-not if Crassus wanted to achieve smooth campaign and he endeed did a lot for achieving this at other fronts too.Several local rulers were asked for cooperation on the campaign and guide in the regions previously never visited by the Romans.Crassus also decided to conduct smaller resarch raid to Parthia before embarking on his major campaign.


FIRST ROMANO-PERSIAN WAR OF 54-50 BC/BCE

So already in the autumn of 54 BC/BCE without any formal declaration of war( actually the Romans completely lacked any good speciffic reason for agression towards Parthia who in reality tried to do everything in its power to avoid such confrontation,not to mention that even a Roman supported  Mithridates,rival King to Orodes,was likely already dead at that point).Romans crossed the borders with Parthia under Crassus for the 1st time.It seems that the goal of this 1st campaign was indeed only to get some more informations about the conditions of the region firsthand and to create secure base and better protected logistic roads for the main campaign the following year.After crossing the Euphrates Crassus headed directly for Carrhae.

Near the town Ichnae the Parthian governor Sillaces decided to take a stand against the Roman army with a few hurriedly mustered cavalry regiments.His forces were however insufficient to anyhow seriously resist the Romans and the Parthians were quickly defeated with Sillaces himself wounded in combat but he mannaged to escape to inform the king about the invasion in person.The most notably, this combat episode fought at Ichnae,whatever it was a smaller battle or just little more than a small skirmish,marks the first ever recorded field encounter in the history of the Romano-Persian wars.

Crassus plans were also very much working with assumption that population of Mesopotamia,at that time from the great part consisting from Greek or strongly hellenized communities,will actually welcome the Roman invasion.Partially he was correct as many predominantly Greek inhabited cities along the invasion road welcomed the Romans as liberators and were gladly opening gates of their towns without putting any resistance and accepting Roman garrisons in.However also some exceptions occured-at Zenodotium 100 Roman soldiers were killed after they were treacherously invited to take over the city in peace and although locals were also the Greeks.Crassus decided to make an an exemplary case from Zenodotium to discourage others from following it.He ordered his army to plunder and destroy the city while its entire population was sold into slavery.At the end of this well going and largely unopposed campaign he left some 8 000 Roman troops as garrison in several Mesopotamian cities including Carrhae.Parthians were unable to react sufficiently enough because at that time they just finished their civil war when Orodes finally defeated and executed his brother Mithridates after latter's  army was destroyed and remnants besieged in Seleukeia by Orodes most talented general known to our sources only as Surena(which in reality was only a name of noble house he belonged to not his real personal name).Orodes was however absolutely uninterested in waging war with the Romans,especially since his position was still precarious and his realm exhausted from dynastic struggle just ended.He send ambassadors to Nicephorium led by Vagises to Crassus trying to dissuade him from the invasion and also demanding explanation of reasons for the Roman agression and violation of terms of the treaty negotiated with Lucullus and Pompey. but Roman general was already firmly decided for the war.Allegedly he should arrogantly say to Arsacid envoys that he will give Orodes his reply in Seleucia(the western capital of the Arsacid Empire of that time) while ambassador Vagises should react with a line that sooner than this would ever happen a hair will grow on his palms.He also asked if this should be a Roman or only Crassus' personal war.He promised that if the latter is true, the Parthians will be merciful.Consequently Parthian envoys departed without achieving anything.


After he successfully returned to Syria,Crassus spend winter of 54-53 BC/BCE in final preparations of his main campaign against Parthia.He was again forcefully usurping another funds from local people,received cavalry detachment from Julius Caesar led by his son Publius and mainly negotiated for the significant military help with allied Armenian King Artavasdes II(who came to Syria in person).Armenian monarch reportedly promised to Crassus 30 000 infantry and 16 000 cavalry with further logistical support on the condition Romans will march against Parthia through Armenian territory.Crassus however rejected this condition and decided to follow his original plan.His exact reasons are unknown but it seems likely he simply wished to follow the most logical direct road to Seleucia-a road which he moreover already militarily and logistically prepared and secured with Roman garrisons to use in 54 BC/BCE during 53 Autumn campaign.Still Crassus was possibly hoping that Armenians will send him at least some reinforcements at any case.



CAMPAIGN OF 53 BC/BCE AND THE ROMAN DEFEAT AT CARRHAE:

Fatal Roman invasion of Parthia finally came in the Spring of 53 BC/BCE.Crassus crossed the Euphrates at Zeugma despite various bad omens reportedly showed up and mentality of the Roman soldiers was very superstitious.From that point on Zeugma was almost a traditional place where to cross in invasion territory of the enemy from both the Roman and the Persian sides.

As for the strength and composition of the Roman army our ancient sources are typically not united enough and they put Crassus army numerical power variously from 40 to 100 000 men.If we will keep in line with the most widely accepted informations given by Plutarch whose version is considered by modern scholars as the most realistic, the power of Crassus army at this point was about 40-50 000 men.From this number were 7 Roman legions(it might be that the real number was 8 legions but also number of 11 legions is given by other author) most of whose recruits were possibly only recently drafted and without any bigger military experience(although also many veterans of Lucullus and Pompeian campaigns in the east were present most were rather rookies brought from Italy),4000 light cavalry(1000 were the Gauls),4000 light infantry(from this number 500 archers) and the army was further accompanied by 3000 strong cavalry force from the Roman vassal state of Osroene led by the King Abgar II in person who were about to act mainly as scouting troops ahead of the main army.Crassus was also putting a great trust into Abgar who should serve as his main guide through,to the Romans,still very obscure land.

Despite numerous bad omens It is recorded that at the start of the campaign morale of the Roman army was very high.Soldiers expected easy war,rich booty for everyone and the Parthians being defeated as resolutely as up to that moment almost any other army from the states Romans faced in the east up to that moment.Even Crassus probably thought in the same style( reportedly calling the victories of Lucullus and Pompey as "a child’s play” )and this impression might be reinforced in him by basically unproblematic campaign and easy victory at Ichnae in 54 BC/BCE.Allegedly at that point Roman soldiers were so confident that they were popularly saying that "possibly the hardest part of the entire war will be just long distances march".Well,little they knew that most of them will never again return on Roman territory.

The exact Crassus goals he intended to achieve by this war(except obvious wish to gain himself a military repute like Pompey and Caesar had and to make himself or rather a state even richer) are unknown.There are reports that he allegedly wanted emulate conquest of Persia by Alexander,to go even to India and maybe even had a personal desire to surpass Alexander and go even further than Alexander(Orosius even mention China!) but possibly the more realistic goals of his were only to conquer Mesopotamian region with its many rich cities and Greek populations culturaly closer to the Romans.

At around the same time Crassus invaded Mesopotamia also Parthian King Orodes II started to act and decided to attack as 1st mighties Roman ally in the region-the Kingdom of Armenia to prevent Armenian army from linking their forces with the Romans.Orodoes however split his forces and entrusted smaller part under the command of Surena a young man around 30 years of age,2nd only in significance to Orodes in the Parthian realm,recent victor over Mithridates and so the one who  returned Orodes his throne and mainly the best general of Parthian Empire(it might be that this man was the historical basis for later popular hero from Persian legends Rostam) and send him to shadow movements of the Roman army in the south until he will return from Armenia to join forces with him in decisive battle against the Romans.Orodes probably did not expected nor wished Surena to daringly and extremely risky undergo the battle on his own fist....and to even won it so completely and decisively.


After a short rest Crassus continued along the river on its left bank to the southThis route had the advantages of a relatively comfortable march and easy supply of the army via the river and the protection of one army's flank.Immediate targets were the big Mesopotamian cities Seleucia,Ctesiphon and Babylon.During the march, however, the plan changed.Crassus turned left and continued in the eastward direction.We are told that he did so on advice from Edessan(Kingdom of Osroene)King Abgar II to whose informations  about the region he was relying on too much.Crassus decided to listen to the Abgar advice even despite the most important from his sub commanders,young Gaius Cassius Longinus(later the famous Republican leader during Great Roman civil war and one of the chief conspirators and murderers of Caesar) protested to this.

From this point on Romans affairs started to turn black.When Army started march in the new direction couriers from the Armenian king reached Crassus.Artavasdes II informed Crassus that it is impossible for him to send him any reinforcements and in fact he urged Crassus to quickly came to Armenia as he is desperately facing attack on his kingdom led by the Parthian King himself.He also allegedly advised Crassus to at least keep his army in mountainous terrains that are not suitable for Parthian cavalry,in case he could not  help him in Armenia.Crassus get enraged and replied to Artavasdes that he will came to punish Armenia after he finish it with the Parthians as he was considering this an Armenian betrayal and several ancient and modern authors are working with possibility that Armenians maybe were in secret alliance with Parthians from the very start.If one take a look on of what was actually happening at Armenia this suspicion however seems rather unlikely.

March in the new direction was comfortable and calm at first but the terrain started to turn more and more hostile with completel dry and hot weather conditions unusual for the Roman legionaries(although they were most likely traveling along usual and densely used trading caravan routes)until tired army get again into at least little more feritile area of  the Balissus river valley.At this point Romans had noticed that their Osroenese ally King Abgar along with his 3000 strong cavalry detachemet had deserted them(and joined Surena during the battle of Carrhae).Crassus realized that Abgar betrayed him and secretely worked for the Parthians.The change in march direction served to lure the Romans into open plains suitable for the one of the history most perfect examples of cavalry army used in open battle.

Crassus spead up the march to get from the desert as soon as possible.He send some partrols ahead and these came in the first contact with the enemy.Roman patrols fought the Parthians in smaller skirmish but were defeated and only a few men returned in hurry to the main army reporting they barely managed to escape.What was even worse scared survivors spread panic in Roman ranks and further undermined their morale.


Not long after this Roman army had reached fatal destination where the battle of Carrhae was selected to be fought by Surena.The Parthian army already awaited the Romans in full combat readiness on the fringe of a slightly undulated plain approximately 30–35 km to the south from the town Carrhae.

As for the Parthian forces one can often read that Surena had 10 000 men strong army at Carrhae from which 1000 was heavy Cataphract cavalry while remaining 9000 were light cavalry along with 1000 camels loaded with arrows to allow his horse archers to replenish ammunition and to shoot for a very long time.These numbers must be taken with great caution as they are solely based on remark by Plutarch about forces that usually accompanied Surena on his travels.One can suppose however,that if Surena decided to face the Roman invasion army he would surely be interested in having as much men with him as possible and likely taking his entire personal army and vassals to participate in coming battle.Apart from this he possibly had additional forces given to him by the King Orodes and the forces of another nobleman Sillakes(that one whom Crassus overcome at Ichnae previous year)with his own retinue.It is generally supposed that Surena surely had smaller army than Crassus at Carrhae but it was possibly larger than those usually given 10 000 men.How much smaller compared to the Roman army it was is however impossible to know and can be talked about only speculatively.It is not goal of this article to describe in detail any battles of  these wars so only very shortly about it:

Surena tactic and strategy based on complely different military doctrine and type of arms was brilliantly used in this battle and made Roman attempts to harm Parthian army futile.The only serious counterattack was led by ca. 5-6000 strong force led by Crassus son Publius when morale of the Romans was already very low but it ended in complete failure when except 500 captured soldiers all Romans and Gauls were slaughtered.
Publius head was cut off put and showed to the Roman army to undermine its morale even more.At that point Romans already lost any hopes for victory realizing they all fight for mere survival but even in this condition Romans were able to maintain they core battle lines intact from several Cataphract charges attempting to break through until comming of the night limiting aiming skills of the Pathian horsearchers ended the battle of Carrhae but not the killing.From ca.20 000 killed Roman soldiers "only" between 5000-8000 was killed directly in the main battle.Majority will be killed and captured only during Roman retreat(at many cases expression "flight"would be more fitting).


ROMAN FIGHT FOR  SURVIVAL:

Until coming of the night and despite death of his son Crassus was acting well in his role of supreme commander but after core of remaining Roman forces retreated behind the walls of Carrhae(which was held by the Roman garrison since 53)he mentaly collapsed so his General staff started deciding what to do next without him.Romans also left 4000 seriously wounded men on the battlefield most of whom were consequently killed by the Parthians as they would be a burden to them and could not survive as captives.At any case Cassius Dio mentions that at least some of these were taken into captivity.Retreat behind Carrhae walls also didn't go smoothly especially because Roman army was not anymore keeping really solid marching formations and several units get lost or separated from the main body of the army.These became easy targets for the Parthians.In biggest of such smaller engagements during retreat to Carrhae a force of 4 cohorts(which means incomplete 2000 men) under command of Legate Vargontinus get attacked in the morning and were killed all except for the last 20 men who fought so valiantly that the Parthians allowed them to reach the Carrhae in admiration of their bravery.Of those who marched with Crassus many also perished on the road to Carrhae, as their strength gave out or because of their wounds, and many died later because they were unable to obtain proper medical care.

Romans were in relative safety behind the walls of Carrhae but they couldn't stay there for long as there was not enough food for so many people and hopes for getting any timely enough help from Rome or the Armenians were completely vain.It was decided that their only realistic hope was in getting the army to the nearest mountainous terrain on Armenian borders(to prevent full efficiency of the Cataphracts)they could reach 1st mountainous areas already by one night march(to prevent effectivenes of Parthian horse archers).So after spending a few days in the city Romans get on the march again which however could not go  unnoticed by the Parthians.

Again several smaller segments of the army get lost in the dark and distanced from the main body and these were mercilessly and systematicaly hunted down,being partially slaughtered,partially taken into captivity.Crassus contingent was guided by a certain Andromachus who was however working for the Parthians and ensured to lead the Romans on the roads that will slow down their movement the most to give forces of Surena as much time as possible and mainly to capture Crassus himself.Cassius didn't trust to Andromachus and returned back to Carrhae and then run away with 500 horsemen successfully to Roman Syria.As there are no reports to tell us he did so on Crassus command his departure was likely nothing less than desertion of his high commander.Already before some commanders and cavalry soldiers deserted the main army having advantage of horses and reached Syria.But also other units of the Roman army started to desert Crassus contingent distrusting guidance of Andromachus(who was consequently made master of Carrhae by the Parthians for his services).


Yet some of the Romans mannaged to reach 1st mountainous areas by the morning and it was here the last major combat of the campaign took place.Ca.5000 Romans under Legate Octavius established themselves on on of the highest hill called Sinnaca(a temple of a moon God Sinak was situated at its top) while Crassus along with 4 legionary cohorts,few horsemen and 5 Lictors situated himself on smaller hill under Sinnaca ridge ca.2 kilometers from Octavius forces.He could not find more suitable hill nor link up with Octavius because Surena attacked him.As Octavius forces could saw what was happening they finally decided to reinforce in maximal hurry their Imperator and mannaged to reach his position(Plutarch claims all of his men were killed in ensuing fighting but "most" is more realistic in this case than "all").

Seeing how desperately Romans were fighting Surena get little nervous.He wanted to avoid bigger losses on Parthian side yet he also didn't want Crassus to slip away to relative safety of Armenian mountains for if he would escaped to him it would stripped him of the glory for capturing the chief instigator of the Roman aggression while at the same time it would possibly meant that Crassus will attack Parthia again and this time better prepared.Romans at that point just needed another night march to reach the safety of the mountains therefore Surena decided to treachelously lure out Crassus from his soldiers under the pretext of a truce on condition of their abandoning all territory east of the Euphrates.Crassus either trusted him(says some)or actually supposed treachery realizing that if he will go he will never return but his demoralized common soldiers forced him to go in hopes they will be granted free passage home(says other sources).Consequently Crassus was captured by the Parthians by stratagem and killed in chaotic struggle to safe him either by the Parthians or the Roman officers themselves who were there with him and wanted to prevent Crassus being captured alive.Among officers killed in this struggle was also Octavius.Surena would have preferred, however, to have taken Crassus alive.
After this Surena urged remaining Romans on the hill to surrender,their lives granted to be preserved.Given to the fact they just saw first hand that such promise could be nothing more than another trap some Romans refused but majority decided to surrender and were indeed captured alive.Remaining Romans waited for the night and then every single one tried to reach safety of Armenia on its own.Some of these managed to escape but many others were cut to pieces by the Parthian auxiliary Arab light cavalry.

This was the end of Crassus invsion of Arsacid Empire.During the whole campaign of 53 BC/BCE ca.20 000 Romans were killed(majority outside of the main battle of Carrhae),10 000 captured and ca.10 000 managed to escape on the Roman territory.Among killed was not only Roman high commander but also several other noble Romans of senatorial rank.Although Parthian losses are unknown it is clear that compared to Roman they were unbelievably small(for example Plutarch specifically mentions only 38 Cataphracts).

AFTERMATH OF CARRHAE CAMPAIGN:

Surena celebrated his amazing victory in the very same city Crassus previously mentioned as one of his main targets-in Seleucia and his celebrations took the form of ridiculing parody on Roman Triumph with parading Roman captives,one of them dreesed like a woman to represent Crassus on horseback. Before him rode trumpeters and a few lictors borne on camels.From their fasces purses were suspended(to symbolize Crassus greed and his motive of invasion), and to their axes were fastened Roman heads newly cut off.Courtezans of Seleucia followed and musicians singing ridiculing songs about the effeminacy and cowardice of Crassus.Surena reportedly send Crassus head to King Orodes(In Armenian capital of Artaxata) where he received it(through Sillakes once defeated by Crassus)while attending Euripides' tragedy "Baccchae"-and it was allegedly used on the stage of that play.It is also recorded that Orodes let melted gold poured into Crassus mouth to give him what he wanted and pay back Crassus earlier refusal of his peace offer-this episode was later incorrectly corrupted by several writers on even more "sexy" version in which Crassus should be poured this gold into his mouth while still alive.

The Roman captives underwent a long march to the oasis of Margiana (today Merv, Turkmenistan), at the north-eastern outpost of Arsacid Empire, where they were settled,gradually intermingled with local population and possibly some of them later served the Parthians(...not to mention even much wilder modern theories on very shaky ground concerning China).Many legionary standards were captured as well, which was another huge disgrace for the Romans.

Final strokes of Mesopotamian campaign of 53 BC/BCE were made by Surena when he quickly regained back all the towns on Balissus river and Euphrates, that were occupied by the Romans the previous year.This was however the high point of his personal luck and fame.He was already very famous and prized before Carrhae and the mightiest man of the realm right after the King himself and now,now he was far too much overshadowing his master.As it happens, king Orodes began to fear for his position and so,instead of thanksgiving,he had Surena executed.


PARTHIAN COUNTERATTACK AND CASSIUS DEFENCE OF THE ROMAN EAST:

After disaster at Carrhae Crassus questor Gaius Cassius Longinus become the highest ranking Roman magistrate in Syria but it was a very unenviable position,although Parthians wasted their golden opportunity to invade Syria immediately after Carrhae when the shock of defeat was the most paralyzing their counter-invasion nevertheless came in the end even so.Cassius had ca.10 000 scattered soldiers throughout his province which he again gathered into united combat force (these were from absolute majority demoralized Carrhae survivors but under Cassius clever leadership they newly found their lost courage and self confidence) to defend Syria plus unreliable potential help from nearby Roman allies and client states-some of whom however used Roman troubles instead of help for the revolt like was the case of infinitely unsatisfied and pro-parthian Jews.Cassius needed to force them to obedience again so this was his first enterprise after returning to Syria.Consequently he spend year 52 BC/BCE in preparations on anticipated major Parthian invasion while successfully repulsing smaller Parthian raids on Roman territory.Meanwhile reaction in Rome on the Crassus defeat and endangering of Syria and the east came rather slowly so Cassius was for a significant time basically relied on himself only while even Syrian population alone started revolting against the Romans and there was a reasonable fear that Syrians will same as the Jews just did siding with the Parthians.In this way Cassius also had to put down in battle certain Antiochos in Syria.

ROMAN VICTORY AT ANTIGONEA AND THE END OF 1ST ROMANO-PERSIAN WAR:

Finally in the year 51 BC/BCE long expexted full scale Parthian invasion came.It was nominaly lead by Pacorus the crown Prince of Persia then probably about 12 years old but the real command was held by experienced general Osakes.

Cassius was heavily outnumbered  and was unwilling to risk an open battle.Instead he retreated his forces behind walled cities with Antioch being his main base.By this purely defensive move Parthians get their hands basically free to travel where they wanted and they indeed looted most of the  countryside and places lacking strong fortifications but exactly as Cassius hoped they were unable to properly put under serious siege bigger walled cities.This siege ineffectivity will be a great military handicap of the Parthian armies until the very end of Arcasid rule over Iran.

The same year finally some reinforcements started coming.Famous Cicero(a man otherwise not held in popular memory in connection to military matters) was send to serve as proconsul of Cilicia from May 51.His province was immediately endangered by the Parthian invasion too.At Epiphania some Ciceronic regiments( few cavalry squadrons and the Praetorian cohort) engaged in smaller battle with the Parthian raiding party and defeted it.Cicero was soon joined also by the client Galatian King Deiotarus and his strong contingents equipped after Roman model and given reliable intelligence reports on Parthian movements from other allies.Cicero also besiged and stormed fortresses of the last independent Cilicians defeating them before they could link up with the Pathians already present nearby(Cicero was saluted as Imperator for this by his soldiers as he proudly recorded himself).These Cilicians were also hoping in Parthian sucess and their timely arrival to help them against Romans.Cicero was than keepeng himself in the limits of his province and it is obvious from his letters he was rather pretty scared he could potentially face to much stronger Parthian contingents soon.So it was a most welcome relief for him to hear of unexpected Cassius victory over them in Syria.

Main parthian army under Osaces and Prince Pacorus and assisted by numerous Arabian auxiliaries attempted to briefly put under siege center of Roman resistance the city of Antioch defended by Cassius himself but having big limitations in the art of siegecraft and logistic support they could not afford to stay under the walls for longer time(also because Osaces was informed of Cicero approach with new forces a fact who on the other hand rised spirit of Cassius troops) and when they tried to take the city by directly storming its walls they were rather easily repulsed by the defenders.After this failure Osaces turned to Antigonea another old Seleucid city not far from Antioch.The city was however overgrown with timber in its neighbourhood so the Parthians could not use their cavalry with full effectivity.Therefore Osaces decided to cut down part of the trees and lay bare the whole place,so that they might approach the town with confidence and much more safely.

Cassius was following in their footsteps, harassed and liquidated smaller Parthian detachments scattered in countryside while searching stocks.Oscaces however decided to quit the work on forest eradication because the task was too big and would consume too much time.So he moved his army again with intention to attack some other place instead.

Cassius decided to risk an open confrontation with Osaces and set an ambush along the road through which Parthians were to depart.In
in subsequent battle Parthians suffered very heavy defeat(likely on 7th of October) with even factual leader of the invasion general Osaces received a mortal wound and died a few days afterwards.Nevertheless even this considerable Parthian setback didn't brought the real end of the war yet.Prince Pacorus was recalled home but considerable number of Parthian soldiers was still remaining in Syria(still including Pacorus according to Cicero)where they even wintered in district of Cyrrhestica until the new year of 50 BC/BCE.Romans received reliable reports that King Orodes is planning a new campaign to Syria lead by him in person to start in Summer of 50 BC/BCE.The real end to the fighting was only brought by another domestic troubles among Arsacids instigated by Roman intrigues.

Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus was appointed as Cassius successor on the post of  governor of Syria in 51 BC/BCE.He quickly offended local  army by accepting nonsensical thanksgiving of twenty days the Senate erroneously granted him after Parthians finally retreated from Antioch and Roman Syria-an award which was stolen to Gaius Cassius Longinus the real victor over the Parthians with whom these soldiers actually fought side by side in real action contrary to Bibulus.In the words of Cicero "Bibulus as long as there was a single enemy in Syria, never set foot out of doors any more than he did out of his house at Rome".Bibulus only memorable action at this time take place at the same region where Cicero fought with success on the Mount Amanus where their provincies shared borders attacking town of Pindenissus Bibulus lost the whole of his first cohort and a lot of good and high ranking officers.To the happiness of the Romans Bibulus was however more lucky while conspiring:

 Bibulus befriended a Parthian satrap(old Perian term for provincial governors) named Ornodapates, who had an old grudge against King Orodes.Bibulus constructed a plot to stage a coup d’etat to overthrow Orodes and install his young son Pacorus on the throne in his stead.Conspiracy failed to depose Orodes as the King soon reconciled with his son(it seems likely child King Pacorus was planned as the next victim of Roman diplomacy to be replaced by pro-Roman Ornodapates at the throne) but the resulting strife succeeded in stopping further Parthian actions against Romans.Orodes,constantly Struggling for his throne in recent years and seeing almost null result of Osaces campaign to Syria and growth of Roman military presence on his borders ,had all the reasons to seek peace to finally stabilize his position in the Parthian realm and also the Romans will soon be distracted for many years by internal wars preventing them from any further agressions towards Parthia.Remaining Arsacid forces were ordered to depart from Syria.

This marked the effective end of fighting and the end of the 1st  Romano-Persian war although official peace treaty was only concluded months later with Pompey in 49 BC/BCE when the Great civil war errupted in the Roman republic and the Parthians decided to support the Republicans(closer details to this and their reasons for it will be narrated next time during description of the 2nd Romano-Persian war).


VICTORS AND DEFEATED:

If one should tell who won this 1st war then obvious answer would be that the Parthians were its winners.They repulsed unprovoked Roman invasion,while killed or captured most of those soldiers who crossed Euphrates,including their high commander while this represented one of the most heavy and humiliating defeats in the entire Roman history.Parthian Empire also ripped off the Romans of very big and important piece of land consisting of vassal,client and allied states Romans had under their suzerainty before the war and who now become vassals of the Arsacid Empire-most importantly the Kingdom of Armenia.Romans managed to keep all of their eastern provincies but they only had to fight for them because they provoked Parthians to counter invasion by their own previous agression.Because they lost majority of eastern soldiers in Carrhae campaign the could do little more than defend themselves mostly passively.Apart from this Romans were forced to re-value their overly optimistic impression that the whole of the east up to India is predestined to be conquered by them as there is no one in the east who would be able to face them as equal and powerful enough to stop their further expansion.Death of Crassus also ended the 1st Triumvirate which lead to Roman civil war in short time horizon.